Solutions and Phase Behaviour 149–204 7.1 Ideal Solutions and Raoult’s Law 149 7.1.1 Ideal Solutions 149 7.1.2 Raoult’s Law 150 7.1.3 Raoult’s Law and Vapour–Liquid Equilibrium Calculation 150 7.1.4 P-x-y Diagram 151 7.1.5 Boiling-point Diagram (T-x-y Diagram) 152 7.1.6 Equilibrium Diagram (y-x Diagram) 153ħ.1.7 Flash Vaporization 153 viii Contents 7.2 Non-ideal Solutions 161 7.2.1 Deviation from Ideal Behaviour 161 7.2.2 Henry’s Law 162 7.2.3 Henry’s Law and Gas Solubility 163 7.3 Vapour–Liquid Equilibrium Calculatons 163 7.3.1 Vaporization Equilibrium Constants 163 7.3.2 Bubble-point Temperature and Pressure 164 7.3.3 Dew-point Temperature and Pressure 164 7.3.4 Flash Vaporization Calculations 165 7.3.5 Computer Program for Solution of VLE Problems 166 7.4 Vapour Pressure of Immiscible Systems 183 7.5 Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Non-volatile Solutes 187 7.5.1 Relative Vapour Pressure 188 Exercises 189 8. Vapour Pressure 130–148 6.1 Vapour Pressure and Boiling Point 130 6.1.1 Vapour Pressure 130 6.1.2 Boiling Point 131 6.2 Phase Behaviour of Pure Substances 131 6.3 Vapour Pressure and Temperature 133 6.3.1 The Clapeyron Equation 133 6.3.2 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 134 6.3.3 The Antoine Equation 135 6.4 Vapour Pressure Plots 137 6.4.1 Equal-Temperature Reference-Substance Plots 138 6.4.2 Equal-Pressure Reference-Substance Plots 142 Exercises 145 7. Properties of Real Gases 105 –129 5.1 Real Gases 105 5.2 Critical Properties 106 5.3 Equations of State 107 5.3.1 The van der Waals Equation 108 5.3.2 Other Equations of State 110 5.4 Compressibility Charts 113 5.4.1 Compressibility Factor 113 5.4.2 Principle of Corresponding States 114 5.4.3 Generalized Compressibility Charts 114 5.4.4 Methods Based on the Generalized Compressibility Charts 115 5.5 Mixture of Real Gases 121 5.5.1 Equations of State 121 5.5.2 Mean Compressibility Factor 121 5.5.3 Pseudo-critical Properties 122 Exercises 125 6. Ideal Gases and Gas Mixtures 76 –104 4.1 Ideal Gas 76 4.1.1 Ideal Gas Equation 77 4.1.2 Calculations for Ideal Gas 79 4.2 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 81 4.2.1 Dalton’s Law 82 4.2.2 Amagat’s Law of Additive Volumes 83 4.2.3 Average Molecular Weight 84Ĥ.2.4 Density and Specific Gravity 84 4.2.5 Calculations Involving Change in the Mass 87 4.3 Reactions Involving Gases 91 Exercises 96 Contents vii 5. Fundamental Concepts of Stoichiometry 40–75 3.1 The Mole Concept 40 3.2 Chemical Calculations and Use of Molal Quantities 42 3.2.1 Molar Volume of Gaseous Substances 44 3.2.2 Equivalent Weight 45 3.3 Density and Specific Gravity 46 3.4 Specific Gravity Scales 47 3.5 Composition of Solids, Liquids and Gases 50 3.5.1 Mass Fraction (Weight Fraction) 50 3.5.2 Mass Percent (Weight Percent) 50 3.5.3 Mass Ratio 51 3.5.4 Dry Basis and Wet Basis 51 3.5.5 Mole Fraction and Mole Percent 53 3.5.6 Volume Fraction and Volume Percent 54 3.6 Other Expressions for Concentrations 56 3.7 Chemical Reactions and Process Calculations 59 3.7.1 Excess and Limiting Reactant 59 3.7.2 Conversion 61 3.7.3 Yield 62 3.7.4 Extent of Reaction 63 Exercises 66 4. Units and Dimensions 13 –39 2.1 Units and Dimensions 13 2.2 System of Units 14Ģ.2.1 SI Units 15 2.2.2 Derived Units 15 2.2.3 SI Prefixes 17 2.2.4 General Guidelines on the Use of SI Units 18 v vi Contents 2.3 Conversion of Units 20 2.3.1 Some Important Derived Quantities and Their Conversion 20 2.3.2 Conversion of Empirical Equations 27 2.4 Dimensionless Equations 31 2.5 Dimensional Analysis 31 2.5.1 Dimensionless Groups in Chemical Engineering Practice 33 Exercises 36 3. Introduction 1–12 1.1 Chemistry versus Chemical Engineering 1 1.2 Chemical Process Industry 2 1.3 Greatest Achievements in Chemical Engineering 4 1.4 History of Chemical Engineering 5 1.5 Chemical Engineering in India 6 1.6 Unit Operations and Unit Processes 7 1.6.1 Fluid Flow Operations 8 1.6.2 Heat Transfer Operations 8 1.6.3 Evaporation 9 1.6.4 Mass Transfer Operations 9 1.6.5 Mechanical Separations 11 1.6.6 Size Reduction 11 1.6.7 Mixing 11 1.7 Stoichiometry and Process Calculations 12 2. Ghosh, Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.Ĭontents Preface xi 1. ISBN-8-9 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Lakshmikutty © 2006 by Private Limited, New Delhi. New Delhi - 1 STOICHIOMETRY AND PROCESS CALCULATIONS K.V. Lakshmikutty Assistant Professor Department of Chemical Engineering Government Engineering College Thrissur, Kerala Narayanan Professor and Head Department of Chemical Engineering Government Engineering College Thrissur, Kerala B. STOICHIOMETRY AND PROCESS CALCULATIONS K.V.